Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence. Laura E. Levine
44
Experimental group 58
Experimental research design 58
Extinction 36
Genital stage 30
Hypothesis 52
Id 29
Imprinting 43
Independent variable 58
Interview 53
Latency stage 30
Longitudinal design 62
Macrosystem 45
Mesosystem 44
Meta-analysis 52
Microsystem 44
Natural or quasi experiment 59
Negative reinforcement 35
Neuropsychology 48
Norm 54
Observer bias 53
Operant conditioning 35
Operationalizing a concept 52
Oral stage 29
Phallic stage 29
Phobia 34
Positive reinforcement 35
Psychoanalytic theory 29
Psychosexual stages 29
Psychosocial stages 30
Punishment 36
Questionnaires 53
Reinforcement 35
Reliability 52
Scaffolding 40
Schema 39
Self-efficacy 38
Sequential design 63
Shaping behavior 36
Social cognitive theory 32
Social desirability 53
Standardized test 54
Superego 29
Survey 53
Validity 52
Variable 46
Zone of proximal development 40
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Descriptions of Images and Figures
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An illustration of Sigmund Freud’s theory on Id, Ego and Superego using the images of three girls.
The first image labeled Id shows the picture of a young girl holding a lot of colorful hard boiled candy to herself as she looks at the camera. The caption reads I want to eat all this candy—right now!
The second image labeled Ego shows the picture of a little girl eating a lollipop with the caption below that reads Lots of candy will make me sick. One lollipop will be all right.
The third image labeled Superego shows the picture of a girl holding colorful vegetables in both her arms as she grins at the camera. The caption reads A good girl wants to eat vegetables, not candy.
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A illustration of the classical conditioning responses of an infant before, during and after conditioning are seen here.
The Before Conditioning stage shows an illustration with two different stimuli. The first shows a baby, Little Albert, crying as an Unconditioned Response to the loud noise of a loudspeaker which is an Unconditioned Stimulus. The caption below reads, Little Albert hears a loud sound (the UCS) and cries with fear (the UCR).
The second shows Little Albert showing no fear to a Neutral Stimulus, a rat. The caption below reads, When Little Albert sees a white rat (neutral stimulus), he is unafraid and curious.
The During Conditioning stage shows an illustration how Little Albert responds to a Neutral Stimulus of a rat combined with the Unconditioned Stimulus of a loudspeaker. The illustration shows Little Albert crying as an Unconditioned Response to this combination. The caption below reads, Every time Little Albert is shown a white rat (neutral stimulus), he hears the loud sound (UCS) and cries with fear (UCR).
The After Conditioning stage shows Little Albert crying as a Conditioned Response (CR) to the stimulus of the rat which is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) hat has been combined with the loudspeaker during conditioning. The caption below reads, After several pairings of rat and loud sound, there is no loud sound but when Little Albert sees the white rat (CS), he cries with fear (CR).
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This figure shows two images each for the effects of positive and negative reinforcement on behavior.
The two images for positive reinforcement show a teacher helping a student in her class room. She is standing over his desk as he writes on a book. Another student is seen at her desk, in front of him. Both students have an apple on one edge of their desks.
The other image shows the same student smiling as he receives a trophy in his classroom. Another student and two adults are seen in the background. The caption below both images reads the following.
Positive reinforcement makes a behavior more likely to continue. Awarding a trophy for academic performance will make it more likely that this boy will continue to work hard in school.
The two images for negative reinforcement show a mother in her bathrobe, holding her crying baby close to her.
In the second image, the mother smiles at the camera as the baby is calm and comforted, in her arms.
The caption below both images reads, Negative reinforcement also makes a behavior more likely to continue. Listening to a crying baby is difficult. When this mother finds that holding her baby stops the crying she is likely to continue to hold her baby.
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This figure illustrates the effects of administering negative reinforcement in the form of punishment versus that of extinction on unwanted behavior.
These are illustrated by three images, one each for Punishment 1 and Punishment 2 and another for Extinction.
The illustration for Punishment 1 shows a young boy, kneeling and pouting, with toy blocks around him as a woman, also seated on the floor facing him, talks to him with her fore finger raised at him. The caption reads, Punishment 1, negative consequence. This boy receives a scolding for misbehaving.
The illustration for Punishment 2 shows a young girl seated at a table, sulking as she holds her face between her fists, elbows rested on the table, with an untouched plate of food, a full glass of milk and cutlery in front of her. The caption reads, Punishment 2, removal of a reward. This girl didn’t eat her dinner, therefore she doesn’t receive a dessert.
The illustration for Extinction shows a young boy yelling with his mouth wide open and his arms on either