Dry Beans and Pulses Production, Processing, and Nutrition. Группа авторов
2020). The major reason was the absence of an incentive to develop a GM bean by private industry as the acreage base is so small compared to soybean. This meant that there was limited investment or financial resources targeted to develop a GM bean, either in the public or private sector. In addition, the smaller acreage planted to dry beans is dispersed over six to eight major market classes in addition to the different horticultural types, so no economic incentive existed to pursue the development of GM bean as any financial returns would be small. Since beans are cropped with soybeans, the private sector did not want herbicide‐resistant volunteer beans appearing in the soybean or corn crop the following season. The additional hurdle was the recalcitrant nature of beans to regeneration and plant transformation.
All major grain legumes, including cowpea, peanut, and pea, have been genetically transformed, and beans continue to resist transformation using Agrobacterium. This has been a formidable hurdle, and one that was bypassed by colleagues in Brazil who have successfully transformed beans using a particle gun (Bonfim et al. 2007). This was the first use of RNA interference technology to achieve this remarkable result of engineered Gemini Virus resistance to Bean Golden Mosaic Virus in the field (Aragão and Feria 2009), which has since been moved into commercial “carioca bean” cultivars (Souza et al. 2018). These varieties were engineered to express resistance to the Gemini Virus pathogen Bean Golden Mosaic Virus. This was the first use of RNA interference technology to achieve this remarkable result of engineered Gemini virus resistance in the field (Aragão and Feria 2009).
The cost to deregulate GM beans in the US is estimated at over $10 million for each GM event but the revenue generated by the crop across diverse states and seed and pod types is insufficient to support deregulation. This bodes well for consumers who are “anti‐GMO foods” or for European markets that similarly continue to exclude GM products. The downside is that bean producers cannot avail themselves of the same production technologies as soybean producers, which will result in a competitive loss of bean acreage in many production states. Lower acreage will undoubtedly result in smaller crop production and higher prices to the consumer. This fact alone is concerning, given the new evidence of the valuable health benefits of increasing bean consumption in the US diet to help combat obesity, diabetes, and certain cancers (Thompson et al. 2009). The US bean industry with limited research support needs to address this question in a rational and reasonable fashion using science‐based research. Breeders are consistently asked to make progress and compete with GM crops such as soybean, yet they are limited in the tools they can use to address future production needs and challenges. Perhaps CRISPR (Zaidi et al. 2020) will provide an affordable consumer‐accepted gene‐editing technology to engineer improved traits for common bean in the near future.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Greater focus on climate change and sustainable production will be key breeding goals of the future. Global climate changes underscore the strong justification for continuous public breeding efforts to preserve bean yield potential through breeding of improved resistance to rapidly evolving biotic and abiotic stresses and the continued displacement of bean production to less favorable environments across the globe.
A 2010 study demonstrated the importance of maintenance breeding as it relates to climate. It was found the 15% reductions in present‐day yield of IR8, the miracle rice variety developed over 50 years ago resulted from the lack of adaptation to current environmental conditions (Peng et al. 2010). The authors stressed the critical role that breeding plays in improving the adaptation of newly developed varieties to changing climatic conditions that have a negative impact on older varieties. The same holds true for bean breeding.
REFERENCES
1 Acosta‐Gallegos, J.A., Kelly, J.D. & Gepts, P. (2007). Pre‐breeding and genetic diversity in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Crop Science 47: S44–S59.
2 Adams, M.W. (1967). Basis of yield component compensation in crop plants with special reference to the field bean, Phaseolus vulgaris. Crop Science 7: 505–510.
3 Adams, M.W. (1973). Plant architecture and physiological efficiency in the field bean. In: Potential of Field Beans and Other Legumes in Latin America, pp. 266‐286. Seminar Series No 2E. Cali, Colombia: CIAT.
4 Adams, M.W. (1982). Plant architecture and yield breeding. Iowa State Journal of Research 56: 225–254.
5 Adams, M.W. (2003). Bean/cowpea collaborative research support program: Origin, structure, development. Field Crops Research 82: 81–85.
6 Aragão, F.J.L. & Faria, J.C. (2009). First transgenic geminivirus‐resistant plant in the field. Nature Biotechnology 27: 1086–1088.
7 Andersson, M.S., Saltzman, A., Virk, P.S. & Pfeiffer, W.H. (2017). Progress update: crop development of biofortified staple food crops under HarvestPlus. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 17: 11905–11935.
8 Ariani, A., Berny Mier y Teran, J.C. & Gepts, P. (2018). Spatial and temporal scales of range expansion in wild Phaseolus vulgaris. Molecular Biology and Evolution 35: 119–131.
9 Balasubramanian, P., Slinkard, A., Tyler, R. & Vandenberg, A. (2000). A modified laboratory canning protocol for quality evaluation of dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L). Journal of the Science of Food & Agriculture 80: 732–738.
10 Beaver, J.S., Estévez de Jensen, C., Miklas, P.N. & Porch, T.G. (2020). Contributions in Puerto Rico to Bean, Phaseolus spp. research. Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico 104: 43–111.
11 Beaver, J.S. & Osorno, J.M. (2009). Achievements and limitations of contemporary common bean breeding using conventional and molecular approaches. Euphytica 168: 145–175.
12 Beaver, J.S., Rosas, J.C., Myers, J., Acosta, J., Kelly, J.D., Nchimbi‐Msolla, S., Misangu, R., Bokosi, J., Temple, S., Arnaud‐Santana, E. & Coyne, D.P. (2003). Contributions of the Bean/Cowpea CRSP to cultivar and germplasm development in common bean. Field Crops Research 82: 87–102.
13 Beebe S. (2020). Biofortification of common bean for higher iron concentration. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 2020: 573449.
14 Beebe, S., Skroch, P.W., Tohme, J., Duque, M.C., Pedraza, F. & Nienhius, J. (2000). Structure of genetic diversity among common bean landraces of Middle American origin based on correspondence analysis of RAPD. Crop Science 40: 264–273.
15 Berny Mier y Teran, J.C., Konzen, E.R., Palkovic, A., Tsai, S.M. & Gepts, P. (2020). Exploration of the yield potential of Mesoamerican wild common beans from contrasting eco‐geographic regions by nested recombinant inbred populations. Frontiers in Plant Science 11: 346.
16 Berny Mier y Teran, J.C., Konzen, E.R., Medina, V., Palkovic, A., Ariani, A., Tsai, S.M., Gilbert, M.E. & Gepts, P. (2019). Root and shoot variation in relation to potential intermittent drought adaptation of Mesoamerican wild common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Annals of Botany 124: 917–932.
17 Bitocchi, E., Nanni, L., Bellucci, E., Rossi, M., Giardini, A., Zeuli, P.S., Logozzo, G., Stougaard, J., McClean, P., Attene, G. & Papa, R. (2012). Mesoamerican origin of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is revealed by sequence data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109: E788–E796.
18 Blair, M.W., Astudillo, C., Grusak, M., Graham, R. & Beebe, S. (2009). Inheritance of seed iron and zinc content in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Molecular Breeding 23: 197–207
19 Blair, M.W., Astudillo, C., Rengifo, J., Beebe, S.E. & Graham, R. (2011). QTL analyses for seed iron and zinc concentrations in an intra‐genepool population of Andean common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Theoretical & Applied Genetics 122: 511–521.
20 Blair, M.W. & Izquierdo, P. (2012). Use of the advanced backcross‐QTL method to transfer seed mineral accumulation nutrition traits from wild to Andean cultivated common beans. Theoretical & Applied Genetics 125: 1015–1031.
21 Blair, M.W., Medina, J.I., Astudillo, C., Rengifo, J., Beebe, S.E., Machado, G. & Graham, R. (2010). QTL analyses